Understanding of the Flynn Effect

The Flynn Effect, first saw by James Flynn in 1981, is the consistent year on year increment in IQ scores on knowledge tests, taking note of a more noteworthy ascent in liquid (non-verbal) insight than solidified (verbal) knowledge. There are various investigations giving proof with this impact prompting the inquiry; are ages getting progressively shrewd? There is no widespread meaning of insight, driving numerous analysts to attempt to find regular topics around the world.Yang and Sternberg (1997b) discovered likenesses in thoughts of knowledge among Western and Eastern societies in any case, alongside different scientists, for example, Baral and Das (2004), presumed that there are incredible contrasts between originations of knowledge around the globe. Because of this, there have been various techniques used to quantify knowledge throughout the years, from Binet and Simon’s (1911) insight test, to Gardner’s (1983) different insight theory.One of the more acknowledged and all around utilized strategies intended to test insight is the (IQ) test, created by William Stern in 1912, a thought utilized by numerous other insight analysts. In 1981, while checking on insight tests to test legitimacy for new forms, James Flynn saw that at whatever point members were given an old test and another test to finish, they generally got higher scores on the more current test. He proceeded to take a gander at a further 73 examinations (Flynn, 1984) and found that somewhere in the range of 1932 and 1978, white Americans had increased 14 IQ focuses, supporting his unique discovery.In 1987 he distributed knowledge test information from 14 nations (Flynn, 1987), reaching the resolution that IQ scores were rising in America, yet over various nations and societies, further showing proof for his revelation. In endeavor to understand Flynn’s revelation, it has been suggested that ages are getting progressively insightful, a thought that Flynn himself precludes. He contended that if ages were getting progressively shrewd, we would hope to see a consistently rising number of masters on the planet which we don’t.So for what reason are IQ scores getting higher? In 1998, Ulrich (Neisser, 1998a) altered a book recommending some conceivable ecological clarifications for the Flynn Effect. The book was added to by Flynn (1998), Greenfield (1998), Lynn (1998), Neisser (1998b), Schooler (1998) and Williams (1998). It secured 5 primary regions: tutoring, test-taking refinement, parental raising style, visual and specialized condition and sustenance. Be that as it may, Lynn (1990) initially separated these thoughts into two restricting theories; the nourishment speculation and the intellectual incitement hypothesis.The Nutrition theory recommends that sustenance is a key factor in ages' expanded knowledge, Lynn (1990; 1998). It considers sustenance to be expanding insight as a major aspect of a supporting situation, including longer futures, improv ed wellbeing and lower baby illness. As food has gotten all the more promptly accessible to a great many people, we are definitely accepting a greater amount of the sustenance and food that our bodies and minds require, which means our bodies and cerebrums are progressively fit for performing to the best of their ability.Compared with ages back, when food and water was scant it is nearly expected that we ought to accomplish better outcomes on insight tests when our cerebrums are better fed and furnished to manage them. Normal human tallness has additionally ascended in the course of the only remaining century, which has been credited to nourishment. Lynn (1990;1998) recommended this could be critical, as mind size has been connected to nourishment and furthermore to insight. A few analysts started taking a gander at specific supplements corresponding to intelligence.Quian et al (2005) took a gander at the impacts of iodine on knowledge. Discoveries demonstrated that the youngsters w ho had gotten iodine supplements when birth scored fundamentally higher on knowledge tests than kids who hadn’t. Iodine is currently notable as one of the most significant minerals for good wellbeing. Benton and Roberts (1988) directed an examination including 90 kids partitioned into 3 gatherings of 30. Gathering 1 were given an enhancement which contained various nutrients and minerals. Gathering 2 were given a fake treatment and Group 3 was not given anything.8 months after the fact Benton and Roberts (1988) found that in Group 1 a noteworthy increment in non-verbal (liquid) insight scores was watched, supporting the Flynn impact. Notwithstanding, there was no critical distinction between verbal (solidified) knowledge scores. Further investigation into understanding the Flynn impact saw Colom, Luis-Font and Andres-Pueyo (2005) test two huge examples of Spanish young men with a multi year hole in a proportion of liquid insight. A huge ascent in IQ scores was seen in the lat er example, with discoveries strikingly taking note of knowledge gains principally saw among the lower percentile of IQ scores.Teasdale and Owen (1989) and Lynn and Hampson (1986) had recently discovered comparable outcomes. These discoveries, and numerous different replications, bolster the Nutrition theory as proof for the Flynn impact. As a rule these kinds of studies have given a lot of proof to presume that IQ is influenced by nutrient/mineral enhancements on non-verbal proportions of knowledge, in any case, it is getting progressively difficult to test this as a great many people are all around supported nowadays especially in Western cultures.Future studies could keep on taking a gander at which specific supplements influence which specific territories of insight, and focus on expanding the examination to a more extensive assortment of societies and financial foundations. A large number of the recently referenced investigations utilize an example comprising of just guys, whic h makes results less delegate to the whole populace. The Cognitive Stimulation theory, considers a portion of different thoughts referenced in Neisser’s book (Neisser 1998a), recommending that higher insight is driven by upgrades in intellectual stimulation.In specific, visual examination and specialized advances are viewed as making knowledge increment. Visual examination can run between numerous things, from photos, messages on oat boxes, puzzles in a paper, to TV programs. Perhaps the greatest change in the twentieth century was the appearance of visual media, for example, TV and the web. These days pretty much every home has a TV and many have PCs and access to the internet.Children presently have a lot more extensive access to instructive toys, games, TV projects and PC projects, and grown-ups now take part in numerous intellectually requesting exercises, for example, perusing, puzzles, computer games and utilizing gadgets, for example, TV and PCs. Johnson (2003) contend s that well known TV has gotten all the more subjectively requesting lately. One model is children’s network show Sesame Street, intended to increment children’s insight and mindfulness by giving mental incitement at an early age.Sesame Street is currently an honor winning show and is perceived as assisting with creating children’s comprehension and capacities (Palmer, 2003). Indeed, even basic things, for example, adverts furnish us with subjective incitement, now and then expecting watchers to work out a covered up or unique importance, contrasted and significantly more straight forward adverts seen from years prior. Knowledge tests, for example, Raven’s grids measure visual investigation, on which the biggest additions in IQ have been found offering help for the subjective incitement hypothesis.Some of different thoughts referenced in Neisser’s book incorporate tutoring, test-taking refinement and parental raising style. These days, we go to cla ss for some a bigger number of years than our folks and grandparents. Cahan and Cohen (1989) found that length of tutoring impacts knowledge, anyway their outcomes recommended bigger ascents in verbal insight, along these lines not giving proof to the Flynn impact. Test-taking refinement is the possibility that we are simply commonly more mindful of knowledge tests than ages back. Level of intelligence tests are something we find out about in school as encouraging today is commonly equipped towards accomplishment tests.This might clarify better scores in knowledge tests by the individuals who know why and what they are doing them for, however it is obscure whether this could clarify the accentuation on non-verbal insight found in the Flynn impact, as it is a troublesome idea to test. Parental raising styles have likewise changed, with families getting littler significance every kid is investing more energy with their folks. Flynn (1998) and Williams (1998) additionally recommend tha t today’s guardians are more inspired by their children’s scholarly advancement than in past generations.However, it could be contended that because of the Flynn impact, today’s guardians are basically more shrewd than their own folks and grandparents, and accordingly better ready to manage and teach their own kids. In the event that the psychological incitement theory can really clarify the Flynn impact, at that point we should see an ascent of IQ scores across ages at all degrees of IQ (Flynn, 2003; Lynn (1990) however in the event that the dietary speculation gives the clarification, knowledge additions would show up more so at the base finish of IQ scores, where healthful hardship is at the very least (Flynn, 2003).Neither the wholesome speculation nor the subjective incitement theory has all the earmarks of being recounting to the entire story corresponding to the Flynn impact, and there are as yet numerous different hypotheses out there. Some recommend com mon choice as a reason, for example, Deary et al, 2004 who discovered noteworthy relationship between's low IQ score and danger of cardiovascular ailment and passing. Anyway this could be down to natural components brought about by lower IQ, for example, destitution and day to day environments which could prompt passing and ailment Gottfredson 1997. Cerebrum size has likewise been propose

The Cold War and U.S. Diplomacy - President's Doctrine Assignment

The Cold War and U.S. Tact - President's Doctrine - Assignment Example Without the help of Great Britain, neither Greece nor Turkey could endure the Soviet assault. Approach creators in the U.S knew about the insecurity in this district and expected that if Turkey yielded to the weights from the Soviets, Greece’s position will be undermined and that Turkey itself would not make due for long if Greece capitulates to socialism. The key significance of the soundness Greece and Turkey to the U.S can't be subverted since their fall would mean geologically fortifying of the Soviet Union’s capacity to end benevolent gracefully chains in the midst of war. As indicated by the U.S Undersecretary of state Dean Acheson, the U.S had more in question if either Greece or Turkey was to fall. The spread of socialism would be far and wide coming to the extent India toward the east and Iran toward the south. Such feelings of trepidation are what affected Truman’s organization to reclassify American Foreign approach (McGhee, 2006). Conversation The wit hdrawal of Great Britain’s monetary guide to both Greece and Turkey, the associated obstruction with Soviet in Turkish and Greek issues and the waning connection between the U.S and the Soviet Union is the thing that affected President Truman’s organization choice of reorienting the U.S international strategy. ... This at that point came to be known as the â€Å"Truman’s Doctrine† and was accordingly embraced by the Congress and is the thing that molded Americas international strategy (Merrill, 2006). Truman considered a Communist triumph in Greece to sabotage the political soundness in Turkey as well as jeopardize the political strength in the Middle East. He contended that the U.S national security depended on its regional security as well as on the regulation of the Soviet dictatorship persuasive venture into autonomous, free countries. The United States reoriented international strategy dependent on Truman’s precept currently implied that it would effectively help in saving the political autonomy and uprightness of â€Å"free people’s† as far such help was to the greatest advantage of the U.S. As indicated by Truman, the U.S expected to avail$400 million worth of help to both the Turkish and Greek Governments and help in the sending of hardware, U.Smilita ry and regular citizen work force to the district. This regulation was the first among a few control proportions of managing domino impact of socialism (Merrill, 2006). The U.S government at that point set out on reestablishing the economies of Western Europe nations as a socialism control measure. To do this, the â€Å"Marshall Plan†also known as Economic Cooperation Actwas built up on June 5, 1947 and got operational in April 1948. Through this arrangement, the U.S was to give money related guide to aid the recreation of the war-torn areas and help in mechanical modernization. The Marshal plan was an immense achievement and was supplanted in 1951 by the â€Å"Mutual Security Plan†. The U.S arrangement producers were realized that countries across Europe could

Natural Environment and Early Human Development free essay sample

So as to help sustain impacts on early human turn of events, analysts have done a few looks into on a few elements of early human turn of events. One of these elements is engine advancement. All kids experience similar stages which start with turning over and end by strolling. Notwithstanding, it appears that engine practices can be improved by training or support. This conviction is upheld by Zelazo and Kolb (1972) who did an investigation where newborn children, who were given venturing work on during the initial two months, started strolling five to seven weeks sooner than babies who had no training. Such an outcome can be considered as an ecological impact. Another factor, which has been inquired about, is discourse advancement. Discourse can be improved by all the more chatting with babies or remunerating them for making discourse sounds. Kagan (1979) guaranteed that kids, who were raised in white collar class American homes, start to talk one year sooner than youngsters raised in certain towns, for example, San Marcos because of the way that these kids, socially, have little â€Å"verbal interaction† with grown-ups. We will compose a custom article test on Regular habitat and Early Human Development or on the other hand any comparable subject explicitly for you Don't WasteYour Time Recruit WRITER Just 13.90/page This exploration guarantees the significance of the conditions, sustain, in early human turn of events. Taking everything into account, therapists and researcher have been contending regarding whether nature or support has more impact on early human turn of events. Therefore both heredity or the nature and condition or sustain are significant factors in molding human character, yet condition is the more significant one. Since nature just goes up until now while further development and improvement is shaped by the situations impact on early human turn of events.

University of Michigan Ross BBA Program Student Interview

Accepted: Wed like to get to know you! Where are you from? Where and what are you studying? Danny: I am from West Bloomfield. I am a senior at the University of Michigan studying Business. I also have a passion for technology so have taken various computer science and product design classes over the years. Accepted: Why did you choose Rosss BBA program? How is it the best program for you? Danny: I chose the Ross BBA program because of my interest in business from a young age. Ross was the best program for me because of its flexibility and variety of classes. While I knew I was interested in business, I had no idea what that really meant or what specifically I was interested in. Ross gave me the ability to figure this out. Accepted: Which other programs had you considered when you were applying to schools a few years ago? Danny: Computer Science, School of Information Accepted: Now that youre about to graduate, can you share some advice with students who are may be starting out their undergraduate careers in the fall? What do you wish you wouldve known before starting the BBA program? Danny: It’s about way more than the grades. The people you meet and the experiences you share are more important and valuable than any single class or skill you learn. Accepted: Can you share some job highlights with us? What are some of your most recent jobs? Danny: Last summer, I worked at Lightbank, an early stage VC firm in Chicago. I did some traditional analyst work but I spent most of my time as a designer-in-residence.   Accepted: Do you have a post-graduation job lined up yet? What role (if any) did Rosss career services department help you in this process? Danny: Yes, I will be working at Trunk Club in Chicago as a Product Designer. Ross Career Services didn’t play any role directly (I recruited only off-campus) but I have done a few mock interviews/career workshops over the years. Accepted: Do you plan on pursuing additional degrees? Danny: Not in the near future, but it’s a possibility down the road. In my current field (technology/design), the degree you have is not as important as experience/skills. However, I could see myself going back to school to get an MBA eventually. Accepted: Do you have any other tips for our applicants? Danny: Figure out what you really want to do before applying. A genuine and honest application will get you further than anything else. For one-on-one guidance on your college applications, please see our College Application Packages. You can read more about Danny’s journey by checking out his website, http://dannyfreed.com/, or by following him on Twitter (@dannyfreed). Thank you Danny for sharing your story with us – we wish you loads of luck! Related Resources: †¢Ã‚  The Quick Guide to Admissions Resumes †¢ Michigan Ross B-School Zone †¢Ã‚  An IE Grad Reflects on Spain, School, and Career Searching

Evaluating the Current State of Indian Banking - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 6 Words: 1808 Downloads: 10 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Finance Essay Type Analytical essay Did you like this example? The commercial banking structure in India consists of the following entities: Scheduled Commercial Banks and Unscheduled Banks Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Evaluating the Current State of Indian Banking" essay for you Create order Scheduled commercial Banks constitute those banks, which have been included in the Second Schedule of Reserve Bank of India (RBI) Act, 1934. RBI includes only those banks in this schedule, which satisfy the criteria laid down vide section 42 (6) (a) of the Act. Further, Indian banks can be broadly classified into public sector banks, private banks and foreign banks. Public sector banks are those banks in which the Government of India holds a stake whereas in private banks government does not have a stake in these banks; they may be publicly listed and traded on stock exchanges. Foreign banks have brought latest technology and latest banking practices in India. They have helped made Indian Banking system more competitive and efficient. Government has come up with a road map for expansion of foreign banks in India. Currently nationalised banks dominate the Indian banking system. In India the history of nationalised banks dates back to mid-20th century, when Imperial Bank of India was nationalised under the SBI Act of 1955 and re-christened as State Bank of India (SBI) in July 1955. Initially, all the banks in India were private banks, which were founded in the pre-independence era to cater to the banking needs of the people. In 1921, three major banks i.e. Banks of Bengal, Bank of Bombay, and Bank of Madras, merged to form Imperial Bank of India. Reserve Bank of India has the role of central banking in India and is responsible for controlling the monetary policies of the nation, in 1935 it formally took over these responsibilities from the then Imperial Bank of India. In 1947, Reserve Bank was nationalized and was given broader powers. In 1969, 14 largest commercial banks were nationalized followed by six next largest in 1980. But with adoption of economic liberalization in 1991, private banking was again allowed. The chart below gives a view on the current state of banking sector in India. From the charts given above, we get a fairly right idea about the mix of types of banks present in Indian banking sector. On a detailed analysis of the Indian banking sector, we came across to the following salient points: Global scale: The lack of global scale for Indian banks came into sharp focus during the recent international financial crisis which saw several reputed international banks reneging on their funding commitments to Indian companies; however the local banks could not step into the breach because of balance sheet limitations. Small and weak banks pose systemic risk with their low capital adequacy ratio and high NPAs. Consolidation could be a timely response to augment efficiency, which in turn would lead to income generation and add to the GDP of the nation. The smaller banks are apprehensive about losing their identities while bigger banks fear that the assets might become a liability for them in the long term. The idea of creating bigger banks to take on competition sounds attractive but one must realise even the biggest among Indian banks are small by global standards. Increase in scope: Over the last three decades, there has been a remarkable increase in the size, spread and scope of activities of banks in India. The business profile of banks has transformed dramatically to include non-traditional activities like merchant banking, mutual funds, new financial services and products. Within retail operations, banks rate product development and differentiation; innovation and customization; cost reduction; cross selling and technological up-gradation as equally important to the growth of their retail operations. Additionally we can also find pro-active financial inclusion, credit discipline and income growth of individuals and customer orientation to be significant factors for their retail growth. Technology (Core banking solutions): Technology has enabled banks to consolidate their various legacy platforms across functions and geographies which helped them in leveraging cost and at the same time acquiring flexibility and scalability to adapt to a fast changing and competitive environment. Also, the shift to IFRS standards by 2011 with valuation of assets on the basis of current rather than historical cost would be one of the major driving forces for the implementation of new technology. The future would require banks to have increased business agility and operational efficiency, which makes the implementation of Core Banking Systems (CBS) by banks increasingly important. Competition: There have been limited signs of increased competition within the banking sector. Public sector banks have attempted to improve the quality of services through technology up-gradation, but such attempts still remain small by relative standards. Significant differences in profitability and efficiency continue to persist between public sector banks and the new private sector and foreign banks. Non-performing assets: While most public sector and old private sector banks have attained the BIS capital adequacy norm of 8 percent, this achievement is somewhat neutralized by the existence of high volumes of NPAs, the periodic injections of capital by the government, and the absence of sound banking practices Also, we note that In spite of new entry and expansion of private sector banks, the oligopolistic dominance of public sector banks continues. Financial Inclusion: Financial inclusion is delivery of banking services at an affordable cost to the vast sections of disadvantaged and low income groups, which can happen through: state-driven intervention by way of statutory enactments, for instance we can take the example of USA, the Community Reinvestment Act and making it a statutory right to have bank account in France. voluntary effort by the banking community itself for evolving various strategies to bring within the ambit of the banking sector the large strata of society. For the past one year definitely and in fact for the past several years one of the important new objectives of the Reserve Bank of India has been financial inclusion. The movement towards financial inclusion rose to a crescendo in the current year because the demand for financial inclusion has become a national and a governmental imperative. The Reserve Bank of India had set up a commission, Khan Commission in 2004 to look into financial inclusion and the recommendations of the commission were incorporated into the mid-term review of the policy (2005ÃÆ' ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¡Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ ¬06). In the report, RBI urged the banks with a view of achieving greater financial inclusion to make available a basic no-frills banking account to common man. Financial Inclusion first featured in 2005, when it was introduced from a pilot project in UT of Pondicherry, by K C Chakraborthy, the then chairman of Indian Bank. Mangalam Village became the first village in India where all households were served with banking facilities. In addition to this, KYC (Know your Customer) norms were relaxed for potential customers who intended to open accounts with annual deposits of less than Rs. 50,000. Also, General Credit Cards (GCC) were issued to the poor and the disadvantaged with a view to help them access easy credit as per their requirement. However, illiteracy and the low income savings and lack of bank branches in rural areas continue to be a road block to financial inclusion in many states. Apart from this there is inadequate legal and financial structure in the nation as of now to support a complete financial inclusion and these needs to be taken care of as soon as possible. In India the focus of the financial inclusion at present is confined to ensuring a bare minimum access to a savings bank account without frills and providing such facilities and services there are some challenges faced by the banks. The main challenges are: Products designed by the banks are not satisfying the low income families. The provision of uncomplicated, small, affordable products will help to bring the low income families into the formal financial sector Banks have limitations to reach directly to the low income consumers. Correspondents can be considered to be an excellent channel which banks can use to distribute their product information. Educating the consumers about the financial benefits and products of banks which are beneficial to low income groups will be a great step to tap their potential. In order to mitigate the above mentioned challenges banks are now using new technologies like mobile phones to reach low income consumers and the recent simplification of KYC norms are another milestone. Financial service providers should learn more about the consumers and new business models to reach them and provide them with the bare minimum financial products and services. Consequences of financial exclusion will vary depending on the nature and extent of services denied. It may lead to increased travel requirements, higher incidence of crime, general decline in investment, difficulties in gaining access to credit or getting credit from informal sources at exorbitant rates, and increased unemployment, etc. The small business may suffer due to loss of access to middle class and higher-income consumers, higher cash handling costs, delays in remittances of money. Priority Sector Lending Norms Branch Licensing The RBI guidelines to banks highlights that 40% of domestic and 32% of foreign NBCÃÆ' ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¡Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ ¬ÃƒÆ' ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ ¢s advance should be to the priority sector. This mainly consists of agriculture, small scale industries, retail trade etc. In order to increase banking penetration and promote financial inclusion, the Reserve Bank relaxed branch opening norms for lenders allowing banks to appoint kirana, medical shop owners, agents of small savings schemes, petrol pump owners, retired teachers among others as correspondents. Transition from class banking to mass banking and increased customer focus is drastically changing the landscape of Indian banking. The scope and breadth of this emerging market can be estimated if we consider the following facts. India has a middle class of 250 to 300 million people in need of varied banking services. Only 60% of our population has access to banks and out of these only 15% of them having loan accounts An overwhelming 70% of farmers have no access to formal sources of credit, reflective of immense potential for the banking system Steps towards financial inclusion: In order to address financial exclusion banks will require a holistic approach in creating awareness about financial products, education, and advice on money management, debt counseling, savings and affordable credit. The banks would have to evolve specific strategies to expand the outreach of their services in order to promote financial inclusion. One of the ways in which this can be achieved in a cost-effective manner is through forging linkages with microfinance institutions (MFIs), which are very well established and have considerable penetration in the rural community, and local communities. Banks should give wide publicity to the facility of no frills account. Nonetheless, use of technology like smart cards, mobile banking can be a very valuable tool in providing access to banking products in remote areas. ATMs cash dispensing machines can be modified suitably to make them user friendly for people who are illiterate. Banks have to make use of all available resources including technology and expertise available with them as well as the network of MFIs and NGOs.

Social Inequality in to Kill a Mockingbird - 987 Words

Social Inequality In the book ‘To Kill a Mockingbird’ by Harper Lee, racism and social inequality are two central themes. Many different forms of social inequality coexist in the society depicted in the book, as the people of Maycomb are very rigid in their ways. This is because the book takes place in a time at which there was much racism and social inequality. In Maycomb, firstly there is discrimination between rich and poor white people, who do not often interact with each other. There is also racism against blacks by all white people in society, both rich and poor. Black people are denied basic rights and discriminated against in this town. Lastly, there is racism between the lowest classes of the community: poor white people and†¦show more content†¦The last type of social inequality is the disparity between men and women. During that time, women were not considered equal to men and as such, there was a particular way in which women were expected to act and certain practices they had to follow. For example, women had to act in a very proper and ladylike way. This is evident through the treatment of Scout by Aunt Alexandra. Aunt Alexandra is very familiar with the expectations of women and how women are supposed to act. She attempts to shape Scout into the kind of lady that society will approve of. Aunt Alexandra believes that Scout is too boyish. Also, Mayella Ewell’s sexual relations with Tom Robinson are unacceptable on two levels: interracial relations were evidently forbidden, as previously mentioned. However, this relationship was also unacceptable because for a woman to make advances towards a man was not socially acceptable at that time. Furthermore, if a man were to make advances towards a woman, it was her duty to stop him. As is evident, women had a predefined role that they had to fit into that society had created for them. It is very evident that Maycomb is a small town in which there is much racism, and social status greatly determines what kind of life you will lead. The different types of social inequality are an important theme in the novel, and Harper LeeShow MoreRelatedAnalysis Of Kill A Mockingbird By Harper Lee785 Words   |  4 PagesSocial Inequality is an issue that the American society has been struggling to solve for generations. Though we would like to say that this problem has been solved throughout time, it sadly has not gotten much better. In the classic novel To Kill A Mockingbird, author Harper Lee takes us back in time to when this issue was more commonly known, the 1930’s. 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Things like gender, race, social status, wealth, background, age, and many other factors have come to define a single person in our world. Sadly, our world is full of prejudice that uses these classifications to it’s advantage. In the justice system, althoughRead MoreCourage Against Social Prejudice898 Words   |  4 Pages there was a significant amount of racial inequality in the South. Black people were considered unequal compared to white people resulting in mistreatment and abuse. Harper Lee, the author of To Kill a Mockingbird, displays her opinion about social inequality through a variety of different characters who exhibit courage through everyday life. In Lee’s novel, one character, Mrs. Maudie who is a friend to Jem and Scout e xplains the meaning of a mockingbird as the following: â€Å"they don’t do one thingRead MoreDivisions And Inequality In To Kill A Mockingbird1481 Words   |  6 PagesIn the novel, To Kill a Mockingbird, one of the major themes that author Harper Lee highlights are the divisions and inequality in society. The story is set in the 1930’s in Maycomb, Alabama when class, gender, and racial discrimination were highly prevalent. In this time Jim Crow laws were in effect. Jim Crow laws mandated the segregation between black and whites. Consequences of questioning Jim Crow laws were violent and people were rejected from society and their family. The 1930’s is also theRead MoreRacial Segregation And The United Arab Emirates1422 Words   |  6 Pagesthe UAE has created a dynamic entrepreneurial environment for international investors. The finan To Kill a Mockingbird, produced in 1962, is an exquisite film adored by many. 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Poe’s Exploration of the Darker Side of Human Nature in the Black Cat free essay sample

Poe’s exploration of the darker side of human nature in The Black Cat, Hop-Forg and Fall of the House of Usher Introduction The main themes of Edgar Allan Poe’s works are death, perversity, revenge and destruction. The settings he employed in the given short stories, especially in The Fall of the House of Usher and The Black Cat are Gothic. Therefore, naturally the mood of these stories would be dark and sepulchral. However, this is not a trivial employment undertaken to put the reader in a certain kind of zone. The reason for a Gothic setting is to ably portray the dark and sepulchral undertones of the psyche of the stories’ characters, and through them, the nature of humans in general. Hop-Frog Compared to the other two short stories given for analysis Hop-Frog has very limited, if any, Gothic elements. However the climax of the story in itself is greatly shocking. Hop-Frog is shown to have tricked the King and his councillors into dressing as ourang-outans on the occasion of a masquerade in the palace. With a pre-planned connivance with Trippetta, he gathers them, thus dressed and chained together, at the centre of the ballroom and suspends them from the ceiling. During this part of the story, the maniacal side of the jester comes forth. The grating of his teeth and foam forming at his mouth create a picture of a mentally unstable person. His whole demeanour changes from that of a congenial, meek servant of the King to a raging, evil villain. Hop-Frog calculatedly planned the entire action, right from the material used to create the costumes which would be easily inflamed to the easy escape he and Trippetta would make after concluding their vendetta successfully. The King and his privy-council had to pay bitterly for their unjust and cruel treatment of Hop-Frog and Trippetta through painful deaths. The manner of the killing, which was made into a ghastly spectacle, reveals the depths of darkness to which the human soul can descend in order to avenge the wrongs inflicted on it. This action of Hop-Frog with participation from Trippetta, however grotesque or inhuman it may seem, is not without reason. They were kidnapped from their land and brought to the King’s palace where they had to lead a life of servility and humiliation and also suffered loss of identity and esteem. They were treated inhumanly and the daily abuse caused resentment and a feeling of revenge in them. However, the dark side of human nature, which presents itself so blatantly through Hop-Frog’s actions, surfaces subtly in the actions of other characters. The King and his council do not hesitate in using Hop-Frog and Trippetta – deserving of more consideration and respect in their own rights – as playthings. The two prisoners (that is what they are in the palace, being held there against their will) have no control over their lives or even their own bodies. The behaviour of the King shows that side of humans that has no consideration for the feelings of others and does not treat others as fellow humans but as mere objects. He oppresses and tyrannises the two dwarfs so much that driven by desperation, they plan and execute his horrific murder in order to escape his torment. The King, blinded by his power and position, humiliates Hop-Frog and Trippetta for his own mirth and his privy-council, who should counsel him in doing otherwise, egg him on and partake in this sordid mockery of the two. In abetting the King, they become his accomplices. They represent lack of compassion and sympathy. The Black Cat The Black Cat perhaps examines the dark side of humans most effectively as it involves sadistic actions and even murder. The narrator, who is the perpetrator of most heinous crimes, while enumerating those crimes of his, comes across as cool and rational. Nevertheless, he is an unreliable narrator. He admits that he is greatly fond of animals, yet hurts his cat Pluto. Poe delves into the narrator’s decline from sanity to madness which takes a shocking turn of events. One of the arguments, which I feel can be established through this story about human perversity, is that it can be inherent in many of us. People have a tendency of ascribing external stimuli as reasons for actions and behaviour of man. If a person becomes a criminal, we look for reasons in his background and social setting. However, it is not always necessary that a poor person will take to crime to alleviate his misery. It is the innate darkness and leaning towards the evil that disposes us to committing acts of brutality and insensitivity. In The Black Cat, the narrator admits that it was an â€Å"unfathomable longing of the soul to vex itself – to offer violence to its own nature – to do wrong for the wrong’s sake only†¦Ã¢â‚¬  that made him carry out the merciless killing of his most favourite pet. Some readers might blame his alcoholism for this act but it is quite evident in the narration that when he was committing this brutal act, he was very much in his senses. So much so, that as he was hanging the cat (Pluto) to the limb of the tree with a noose around its neck, â€Å"tears were streaming† from his eyes â€Å"with the bitterest remorse† at his heart. He knew he was committing a sin. A sin so terrible that even the highest mercy of God would not exonerate his blighted soul. Yet, this realisation did not keep him from following the call of his perverse side. Before the episode of killing Pluto, the narrator, after returning home drunk and sensing that the cat was avoiding his company, seized it violently. During this physical bout the cat bit his hand out of fright and perhaps a sense of self-preservation. The narrator was so enraged with this that he gouged out one of Pluto’s eyes out of its sockets. While narrating this incident, he is much ashamed and horrified. He is regretful even the next morning of the deed. But in his own words, â€Å"†¦ it was, at best, a feeble and unequivocal feeling, and the soul remained untouched. We as readers know that his remorse and feelings of guilt were short-lived because soon afterwards we see him indulging in the vices of drinking again, followed by the killing of Pluto. On the night of Pluto’s killing, his house catches fire and the next day he comes back to find among the ruin, the imprint of the Black Cat with a rope around its neck on the single wall of his house that survived the fire. At first he is terrorised by this image. But later, he tries to brush aside the appearance of the cat’s image and tries to rationalise it. However, his conscience is troubled by the apparition. Yet he does not want to acknowledge the â€Å"half-sentiment† as remorse because that would mean admitting to himself that the killing of Pluto had affected him deeply. His ambivalent feelings and reactions to his sin tell us about the troubled state of his mind. Under such circumstances, he finds another cat that closely resembles Pluto and brings it home. His inner turbulence does not let him stay in peace and he views this cat as a reincarnation of Pluto, come to exact revenge from him. In a fit of rage, he tries to kill this cat but ends up killing his wife whose body he conceals in a vault in the cellar of his new home. After the murder of his wife, the black cat is seen no more and the narrator â€Å"slept soundly† at night, although he had the burden of his wife’s murder on his heart. Here, the narrator presents a conflicting picture. Any conscientious person would be tormented by guilt after committing such an act. But the narrator only shows some vestige of regret and is able to sleep off the crime. The fact of the cat’s disappearance is more relieving for him than the burden of his guilt. The Fall of the House of Usher The story begins with the narrator describing a very sad and gloomy landscape and as he comes to the House of Usher, the ambience is dark and morbid. In the former two stories, we see how the dark side of human nature can have negative or even fatal consequences for others. In The Fall of the House of Usher however, the darkness within Roderick Usher proves damningly baleful for him. In this short story, Roderick Usher’s perversity and disordered mind led to his ultimate destruction. In this story, Poe is trying to bring out the dark side of human nature by placing the narrator’s character in a dark gloomy place which is engulfing him in an aura of terror and darkness. He showed how the mind can be consumed by fear. The darkest of human deeds, that of extinguishing the life of another (in this case, Roderick Usher’s sister, Madeline’s life), is portrayed in this story. A sense of claustrophobia is constructed in the story through the portrayal of the narrator being trapped in the House and not being able to leave it until it finally cracks from the middle and falls down. This could be an allegory of the entrapment of Roderick Usher himself in the darkness within him, which he is able to escape only with his own death. How Roderick Usher is able to entomb his twin sister alive in the house he is staying in would be horrifying for most readers. However the real darkness comes from the struggle of Usher to stay sane and how his fear and guilt work upon him and consume him so that towards the end of the story, he is reduced to a shadow of his former self, barely managing to stay sane and audible. Conclusion Through these three short stories, Poe presents a working of the dark side f human nature and how it affects humans and also the people and events around them. I think the reason why Poe is so successful in dealing with this darkness is that he plays on the reader’s fear of the darkness that is inherent in every one of us. We all have good and evil within us and are often tempted to give in to evil and darkness. Poe, while describing this darkness, also presents a picture of downfall and failure which meets the people who go down this path. Poe was able to tap in to the forces that we all feel within us, but through characters who take this inner darkness to their chilling conclusions.

The Number 12 Looks Like You - Mongrel free essay sample

In a dark world of musical entropy where art is steadily going down the tube, there is very little light to keep us from falling entirely into nothingness. Once-respected bands are disgracing themselves by softening up and becoming radio friendly. One band, though, hasn’t disappointed me. The Number 12 Looks Like You, a mathcore band from New Jersey, scoffs and steps away from all of the sell-outs with their album â€Å"Mongrel.† The word chaos is an understatement. Mind-boggling drums, energetic guitar riffs, punchy bass lines, and piercing-to-gravelly screams are just part of the poisonous combo that is â€Å"Mongrel.† Despite the pandemonium, songs like â€Å"Imagine Nation Express† and â€Å"Grandfather† suddenly break into groovy riffs and catchy choruses. The flamenco flair in â€Å"Paper Weight Pigs† will stay in your head for hours, while the jazzy drums in â€Å"The Weekly Wars† will keep your feet and fingers tapping. As you could probably put together, the album is based on the concept of being a mongrel, or some mottled, mixed breed. We will write a custom essay sample on The Number 12 Looks Like You Mongrel or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page This album is a mongrel; the disorder doesn’t stop until the last, unpredictable song, â€Å"The Try (Thank You).† As if to taunt bands from heavy genres that are lightening up, â€Å"Mongrel† is riddled with nonstop heavy chaos and intricate mixes of melody and disharmony. So, if you’re a fan of The Mars Volta, The Blood Brothers, The Dillinger Escape Plan, mathcore in general, or you’d just like to step out from what your radio and TV tell you to like, give â€Å"Mongrel† a listen.

How to quit your job and actually travel the world

How to quit your job and actually travel the world No matter how much you like your job, chances are you’ve spent some time daydreaming about what it would be like to walk into your boss’s office, quit on the spot, and then put all your energy into traveling and enjoying the world. But actually doing it may not be as crazy as it sounds! If the wanderlust is getting stronger than ever, then maybe you should think about how you can make this daydream happen. Let’s look at some of the first steps you can take toward becoming a professional globetrotter. Be realistic about your finances.Unfortunately, the nonstarter for many of us is that the money will run out eventually- and you really don’t want that to happen while you’re stranded halfway across the world. If you’re thinking about making your travel goals happen, make sure you have a strong savings game  and a very specific budget for your new Bohemian lifestyle. And it’s never too early to start your financial prep- start cutting ba ck on things now to help you build your travel savings account. Only set out when you have enough for your adventures  plus a hefty cushion for emergencies and easing your way back into real life once your travel adventures are over.Start hoarding vacation days.If you’re serious about quitting your job sometime in the near future, start saving up your vacation days. Most companies will pay you for unused vacation time when you leave your job. And if you have vacation time that accrues throughout the year (instead of being available all at once), plan your big resignation date for a point when you’ll have maximum time accrued. The key here is to think long-term. When you’re exploring job options, if travel is ideally in your future you should negotiate vacation time/accrual into your contract. Even if you can’t get a salary bump, an extra week of vacation could be just as valuable for your future jet-setting.Find ways to make extra cash on everyday activ ities.There are a lot of loyalty programs, credit card incentive programs, and other everyday tools that give consumers money or points back when they use a card or service. If you have access to these programs (like Ebates), take advantage of them. You should also consider getting (or using) cards with strong rewards or cash-back programs for money spent on travel or hospitality. Travel sites like Hotels.com or Expedia.com also tend to have rewards programs, awarding points that can be redeemed for more travel.Live like a local.Staying in four-star hotels around the globe sounds fantastic, but for most people it’s not terribly realistic. If you want to maximize your travel budget, look into local options for â€Å"couchsurfing† or Airbnb-type programs. However- and I can’t emphasize this enough- always do your research to make sure you’re using reputable services that have policies in place to ensure your own safety and security.If you plan financially, and think realistically about your means, a globetrotting existence can be the ultimate alternative to the workday grind. Once you start putting in the work of planning and researching your new life, you may find that it’s far more attainable than you ever thought possible!

Response # 2 Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Response # 2 - Assignment Example The title was wrong for the paper as it never connoted the content of the paper at all. It was also combative in stance due to the use of an exclamation point in the title. The title is the most important part of an essay or article because it helps the writer target an audience for the papers discussion content. None of those factors exist in the title. It presented the problem from the point of view of the writer but did not include any factual data in support of her claims. Although the writer made reference to a source for what I assume to be paraphrased information, she improperly cited her source in MLA format within the paragraph. The paper was made even weaker because of her presentation of numerous theses which lacked supporting evidence and a more extensive discussion in order to cover the issues she presents. This presentation told me that she did not bother to previously outline her discussion so that she could coherently talk about her topics in the final paper. Rather, the paper had no sense of direction and left the paper chaotic in content. The paper also lacked grammar and proof reading on the part of the writer. It was almost as if the paper had been written a few minutes before it was due for submission. Most importantly, even though she had presented a source in one of her earlier paragraphs, she failed to present a works cited page for her reference at the end of the essay thus making the content of the paper questionable. Without the reference page her paper could be deemed to have been

Education Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 5

Education - Essay Example cer by another name does not cure cancer, there is a need to confront the eligibility problem by strengthening the supportive attitude on children with disabilities, while introducing honest-to-goodness approaches to the admission problem on special children (Howard, 2012). The Lavender Scare came along Senator McCarthy’s Red Scare which prejudged homosexuals in Federal Government to be morally depraved and likely to sell classified information to Communists. State policies and laws caused homosexuals to lose their government jobs, while repressing the gay and lesbian subculture which once flourished during the Roosevelt administration. The Lavender Scare backfired and served as the roots of the gay rights movement. Court cases gave victories to homosexuals until discrimination was finally outlawed under the Civil Service Law (Johnson, n.d.). The Obama administration set the policy allowing homosexuals in the military establishment to openly reveal their sexual orientation without losing their employment. In some states today, gays enjoy same-sex marriage rights, while women have gained the right to priestly ordination in some Churches. Sex and gender biases have started to fade away. On teacher interaction with boys and girls, researches show that boys may need more attention from educators as two-thirds of them are labeled as learning disabled, alcoholic, drug violators and juveniles. On the other hand, women rights advocates claim girls need more attention from teachers, while eliminating negative attention being given to them (Gilah, 1987). Researches continue to establish patterns for teacher interactions with boys and/or girls. Already, male teachers coach girls’ sports teams, but a TV series like Glee portrayed the bias against women teachers coaching boys’ teams. Professional attitudes among educators may yet solve the problem of bias in teacher-student gender

Reading Response to a Poem Essay Example for Free

Reading Response to a Poem Essay The poem â€Å"Wild Geese† by Mary Oliver was a very inspirational poem. Oliver creatively uses imaginative language, emotion, symbolism, and romanticism which led to a very positive and upbeat tone in her poem. Throughout this poem, the one thing that I focused on was the positive and upbeat tones that this poem contained. By her use of symbolic and imaginative language in â€Å"Wild Geese†, the reader is opened to Mary Oliver’s underlying meaning behind her literary prose. Furthermore, the calm romantic tone of this thought provoking poem, raises positive emotions to rise up out of the moment, and invites us to further take a look at ourselves. Mary Oliver immediately engages the reader into considering the true meaning behind her choice of words. In lines one through five, the reader can envision being in a very noble place where rules are always followed. Mary Oliver (1986) noted that, â€Å"You do not have to be good. You do not have to walk on your knees for a hundred miles through the desert, repenting. You only have to let the soft animal of your body love what it loves† I believe that she is saying that you do not have to follow the rules of society by bowing down to others or to repent for being who you are. Oliver used the symbol of an animal, you should do what you love to do and not worry about having to say you are sorry. With that being said, animals never have to apologize for being who God or the Creator made them to be. In lines six and seven, she again uses emotion and romanticism to bring out the feeling of her readers. Oliver (1986) noted that, â€Å"Tell me about despair, yours, and I will tell you mine. Meanwhile the world goes on†. She cleverly shows that we all have problems and yet the world will still go on. God or the Creator never promised us an easy life. In lines eight through eleven, Oliver uses the symbols of nature once again to show us that life is still going on no matter what problems we face. Oliver (1986) noted that, Meanwhile the sun and the clear pebbles of the rain are moving across the landscapes, over the prairies and the deep trees,   the mountains and the rivers. She uses the emotional state of the reader along with the quiet romantic tones to show that although you will go through trying times in life, it will not last forever. She uses the symbolism of the wild geese, in lines twelve and thirteen, to show that we will always be guided to our destinations. All we have to do is allow our natural instincts to guide us just as the wild geese are guided home by natural instinct. In lines fourteen through fifteen, Oliver uses emotion and imaginative language to let the reader know that no matter who you are, or how lonely you feel, the world is for you to design it. The reader needs to use his/ her imagination. If you can dream it, you can achieve it. She again uses the symbolic nature of the wild geese to illustrate this concept. Last but not least, in lines sixteen through eighteen, she again uses imaginative language to challenge the reader to not conform to the world. The reader can use their imagination to break free from their conventional life styles and to join their place in the family of nature. In nature, there are no rules, but the ones that you create, where you are free to be as the â€Å"Wild Geese†. In conclusion, I found the poem â€Å"Wild Geese† by Mary Oliver extremely inspirational. She creatively uses imaginative language, emotion, symbolism, and romanticism to convey a very positive and upbeat tone in her poem. Throughout this poem, the one thing that I continuously focused on was the positive and upbeat tones that this poem contains. This is a very inspirational and uplifting poem. It encourages us to go beyond the plan that is laid out for us by society and lends us permission to be who we were destined to be. Throughout this entire poem, we are given permission to shake off all of life’s discretions, throw caution to the wind, and be as wild and free as nature intended us to be. References Clugston, W. R. (2010). Journey into literature. San Diego, CA: Bridgepoint Education, Inc.

John Gradys Journey in All the Pretty Horses :: essays research papers

John Grady's journey is one that leads him from innocence to experience and lets him find the 'paradise' for which he is looking. Grady is an outcast. At beginning of the novel he feels out of place in the world in which he is living. On top of that he neither understands why it is changing nor is he willing to accept it. As he is sitting in the theatre watching his mother's play, the narrator tells us his thoughts: 'He'd the notion that there would be something in the story itself to tell him about the way the world was or was becoming but there was not.' The times are changing and he's unwilling to give up the past. The world is becoming modernized and people like him, cowboys and ranchers, are slowly disappearing. He runs away from home because he desires to find peace within himself as well as a place where he can feel he belongs. Here begins the adventure of John Grady and his best friend Lacey Rawlins. It is important to note here the means of travel. The story is taking place after World War II, a time when cars are fairly common, yet these boys decide to go on horseback, like in the fading old days. This is just another concept of how they are unwilling to give up a fading past. When they first begin their journey, the boys are having a good time. In a sense they?re two buddies on a road trip with no real motive. Rawlins even mentions, ?You know what?I could get used to this life.? Then they meet Blevins, the foil in the plot that veers the two boys of their course and also has plays a role in the lasting change of their person ality. Their meeting with him gives an insight into Grady?s character. Rawlins is against letting Blevins come along with them, but because of John?s kind nature he ends up allowing Blevins to come. It?s because of this kindness and sense of morality, he gets into trouble later on. The crossing of the Rio Grande into Mexico is an important structural device and symbol in the novel. This is when they enter the ?frame? of the novel in which all the conflicts take place. The crossing of the river naked is symbolic for the cleansing of their souls as well as a new beginning. In only a short time after arriving in Mexico, conflicts start.

Member of the wedding notes Essay

Stuck between being to young for adolescence and to old to be a child, the protagonist Frankie Addams, has the desire to be the child and the adult. Within herself she’s confused and lost, her body is to big, yet her mind is broken. Through the journey of Carson McCullers novel The Member of the Wedding, Frankie clenches on to the ridiculous idea of belonging to the wedding and even going off with the honeymooners after. This concept developed by her, is what she believes is a way in which she can develop a sense of belonging. Although this idea preposterous and highly immature it highlights that Frankie wants an adult dream at her young age. Her confused desires between child and adulthood are depicted again, when she almost experiences her first sexual encounter with a solider. Although being inquisitive and interested in what would go on between the two of them and although Frankie enjoyed being treated like an adult, it was all to much for her to handle and she fled from the solider. It is difficult to posses a sense of belonging when we are unsure of our own identity. Why? In having a sense of belonging, one must always have a clear understanding of their identity. This is because the groups we attach ourselves with throughout the journey of life resemble features of our own personality. So when one lacks the knowledge of their own self, in finding somewhere or something to belong to which suites and allows them to be comfortable, it is almost impossible. Evidence Through Carson McCullers novel The Member of the Wedding (1946 ) the confused protagonist Frankie Addams reflects how her own frail understanding of her identity impacts and makes it difficult for Frankie to develop a sense of belonging. This â€Å" unjoined â€Å" from society feeling that the protagonist feels is partly formed from different experiences she endures. From growing too old for sharing a bed with her father to being rejected from the club house for being â€Å" too young â€Å". Frankie’s self perception of her physical aspect also adds to this unsettled identity, as she is entering the stages of puberty and feels as if she is a â€Å" freak â€Å" due to her tall height. With both her experiences and her appearance shattering her identity in to an unsettled state, Frankie finds it difficult to belong to something more then the people she lives with. Leaving the protagonist to clench on to the ridiculous idea of being a member of her brothers wedding. Although this concept that Frankie desires so much, of belonging to a wedding, is preposterous it proves how much of an impact having a weak identity can play it finding a sense of belonging.

The Origins of Rice Domestication in China

Today, rice (Oryza species) feeds more than half the worlds population  and accounts for 20 percent of the worlds total calorie intake. Although a staple in diets worldwide, rice is central to the economy and landscape of wider East Asian, Southeast Asian, and South Asian ancient and modern civilizations. Particularly in contrast to Mediterranean cultures, which are primarily based on wheat bread, Asian cooking styles, food textural preferences, and feasting rituals are based on consumption of this vital crop. Rice grows on every continent in the world except Antartica, and has 21 different wild varieties and three distinct cultivated species: Oryza sativa japonica, domesticated in what is today central China by about 7,000 years BCE, Oryza sativa indica, domesticated/hybridized in the Indian subcontinent about 2500 BCE, and Oryza glabberima, domesticated/hybridized in west Africa between about 1500 and 800 BCE. Origin Species: Oryza rufipogonFirst Domestication: Yangtse River basin, China, O. sativa japonica, 9500-6000 years ago (bp)Paddy (Wet Rice Field) Invention: Yangtse River basin, China, 7000 bpSecond and Third Domestications: India/Indonesia, Oryza indica, 4000 bp; Africa, Oryza glaberrima, 3200 bp Earliest Evidence The oldest evidence of rice consumption identified to date is four grains of rice recovered from the Yuchanyan Cave, a rock shelter in Dao County, Hunan Province in China. Some scholars associated with the site have argued that these grains seem to represent very early forms of domestication, having characteristics of both japonica and sativa. Culturally, the Yuchanyan site is associated with the Upper Paleolithic/incipient Jomon, dated between 12,000 and 16,000 years ago. Rice phytoliths (some of which appeared to be identifiable to japonica) were identified in the sediment deposits of Diaotonghuan Cave, located near Poyang Lake in the middle Yangtse river valley radiocarbon dated about 10,000-9000 years before the present. Additional soil core testing of the lake sediments revealed rice phytoliths from rice of some sort present in the valley before 12,820 BP. However, other scholars argue that although these occurrences of rice grains in archaeological sites such as Yuchanyan and Diaotonghuan caves represent consumption and/or use as pottery temper, they do not represent evidence of domestication. Origins of Rice in China Oryza sativa japonica was derived solely from Oryza rufipogon, a poor-yielding rice native to swampy regions that required intentional manipulation of both water and salt, and some harvest experimentation. Just when and where that occurred remains somewhat controversial. There are four regions that are currently considered possible loci of domestication in China: the middle Yangtze (Pengtoushan culture, including such sites as at Bashidang); the Huai River (including the Jiahu site) of southwest Henan province; the Houli culture of Shandong province; and the lower Yangtze River Valley. Most but not all scholars point to the lower Yangtze River as the likely origin location, which at the end of the Younger Dryas (between 9650 and 5000 BCE) was the northern edge of the range for O. rufipogon. Younger Dryas climatic changes in the region included the increase of local temperatures and summer monsoon rainfall amounts, and the inundation of much of the coastal regions of China as the sea rose an estimated 200 feet (60 meters). Early evidence for the use of wild O. rufipogon has been identified at Shangshan and Jiahu, both of which contained ceramic vessels tempered with rice chaff, from contexts dated between 8000–7000 BCE. Direct dating of rice grains at two Yangtse river basin sites was reported by Chinese archaeologists led by Xinxin Zuo: Shangshan (9400 cal BP) and Hehuashan (9000 cal BP), or about 7,000 BCE. By about 5,000 BCE, domesticated japonica is found throughout the Yangtse valley, including large amounts of rice kernels at such sites as TongZian Luojiajiao (7100 BP) and Hemuda (7000 BP). By 6000–3500 BCE, rice and other Neolithic lifestyle changes were spread throughout southern China. Rice reached Southeast Asia into Vietnam and Thailand (Hoabinhian period) by 3000–2000 BCE. The domestication process was likely a very slow one, lasting between 7000 and 100 BCE. Chinse archaeologist Yongchao Ma and colleagues have identified three stages in the domestication process during which rice slowly changed eventually becoming a dominant part of local diets by about 2500 BCE. Changes from the original plant are recognized as the location of rice fields outside of perennial swamps and wetlands, and non-shattering rachis. Out of China Although scholars have come close to a consensus concerning the origins of rice in China, its subsequent spread outside of the center of domestication in the Yangtze Valley is still a matter of controversy. Scholars have generally agreed that the originally domesticated plant for all varieties of rice is  Oryza sativa japonica, domesticated from  O. rufipogon  in the lower Yangtze River Valley by hunter-gatherers approximately 9,000 to 10,000 years ago. At least 11 separate routes for the spread of rice throughout Asia, Oceania, and Africa have been suggested by scholars. At least twice, say scholars, a manipulation of  japonica  rice was required: in the Indian subcontinent about 2500 BC, and in West Africa between 1500 and 800 BCE. India and Indonesia For quite some time, scholars have been divided about the presence of rice in India and Indonesia, where it came from and when it got there. Some scholars have argued that the rice was simply  O. s. japonica, introduced straight from China; others have argued that the  O. indica  variety of rice is unrelated to japonica and was independently domesticated from  Oryza nivara. Other scholars suggest that  Oryza indica  is a hybrid between a fully domesticated  Oryza japonica  and a semi-domesticated or local wild version of  Oryza nivara. Unlike  O. japonica, O. nivara  can be exploited on a large scale without instituting cultivation or habitat change. The earliest type of rice agriculture used in the Ganges was likely dry cropping, with the plants water needs provided by monsoonal rains and seasonal flood recession. The earliest irrigated paddy rice in the Ganges is at least the end of the second millennium BC and certainly by the beginning of the Iron Age. Arrival in the Indus Valley The archaeological record suggests that  O. japonica  arrived in the  Indus Valley  at least as early as 2400–2200 BCE, and became well-established in the Ganges River region beginning around 2000 BCE. However, by at least 2500 BCE, at the site of Senuwar, some rice cultivation, presumably of dryland  O. nivara  was underway. Additional evidence for the continuing interaction of China by 2000 BCE with Northwest India and Pakistan comes from the appearance of other crop introductions from China, including peach, apricot,  broomcorn millet, and Cannabis.  Longshan  style harvest knives were made and used in the Kashmir and Swat regions after 2000 BCE. Although Thailand certainly first received domesticated rice from China–archaeological data indicates that until about 300 BCE, the dominant type was  O. japonica–contact with India about 300 BCE, led to the establishment of a rice regime that relied on wetland systems of agriculture, and using  O. indica. Wetland rice–that is to say rice grown in flooded paddies–is an invention of Chinese farmers, and so its exploitation in India is of interest. Rice Paddy Invention All species of wild rice are wetland species: however, the archaeological record implies that the original domestication of rice was to move it into a more or less dryland environment, planted along the edges of wetlands, and then flooded using natural flooding and annual rain patterns. Wet rice farming, including the creation of rice paddies, was invented in China about 5000 BCE, with the earliest evidence to date at Tianluoshan, where paddy fields have been identified and dated. Paddy rice is more labor-intensive then dryland rice, and it requires an organized and stable ownership of land parcels. But it is far more productive than dryland rice, and by creating the stability of terracing and field construction, it reduces environmental damage caused by intermittent flooding. In addition, allowing the river to flood the paddies replenishes the replacement of nutrients taken from the field by the crop. Direct evidence for intensive wet rice agriculture, including field systems, comes from two sites in the lower Yangtze (Chuodun and Caoxieshan) both of which date to 4200–3800 BCE, and one site (Chengtoushan) in the middle Yangtze at about 4500 BCE. Rice in Africa A third domestication/hybridization appears to have happened during the African Iron Age in the Niger delta region of west Africa, by which  Oryza sativa  was crossed with O. barthii to produce  O. glaberrima. The earliest ceramic impressions of rice grains date from between 1800 to 800 BCE in the side of Ganjigana, in northeast Nigeria. documented domesticated O. glaberrima has first been identified at Jenne-Jeno in Mali, dated between 300 BCE and 200 BCE. French plant geneticist Philippe Cubry and colleagues suggest that the domestication process may have been begun about 3,200 years ago when the Sahara was expanding and making the wild form of rice harder to find. Sources Cubry, Philippe, et al. The Rise and Fall of African Rice Cultivation Revealed by Analysis of 246 New Genomes. Current Biology 28.14 (2018): 2274–82.e6. Print.Luo, Wuhong, et al. Phytolith Records of Rice Agriculture During the Middle Neolithic in the Middle Reaches of . Quaternary International 426 (2016): 133–40. Print.Huai River Region, ChinaMa, Yongchao, et al. Rice Bulliform Phytoliths Reveal the Process of Rice Domestication in the Neolithic Lower Yangtze River Region. Quaternary International 426 (2016): 126–32. Print.Shillito, Lisa-Marie. Grains of Truth or Transparent Blindfolds? A Review of Current Debates in Archaeological Phytolith Analysis. Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 22.1 (2013): 71–82. Print.Wang, Muhua, et al. The Genome Sequence of African Rice (Oryza . Nature Genetics 46.9 (2014): 982–8. Print.Glaberrima) and Evidence for Independent DomesticationWin, Khin Thanda, et al. A Single Base Change Explains the Independent Origin of and Selection for the Nonshattering Gene in African Rice Domestication. New Phytologist 213.4 (2016): 1925–35. Print.Zheng, Yunfei, et al. Rice Domestication Revealed by Reduced Shattering of Archaeological Rice from the Lower Yangtze Valley. Scientific Reports 6 (2016): 28136. Print.Zuo, Xinxin, et al. Dating Rice Remains through Phytolith Carbon-14 Study Reveals Domestication at the Beginning of the Holocene. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 114.25 (2017): 6486–91. Print.